UMYU Scientifica

A periodical of the Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences, UMYU, Katsina

ISSN: 2955 – 1145 (print); 2955 – 1153 (online)

ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Composition of Indoor Resting Malaria Vectors and their Seasonal Dynamics in Qua'an-Pan LGA, Plateau State, Nigeria

Yakop D. Dakum^1,2*, Akwashiki Ombugadu², James I. Maikenti², Mohammed A. Ashigar², Pangwa M. Lapang³, Abdullahi A. Ali², Mahanan J. Mafuyai⁴, Innocent C. J. Omalu⁵ and Victoria A. Pam²

¹Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Federal University Lokoja, Lokoja, Kogi State, Nigeria.

²Department of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Federal University of Lafia, Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria.

³Department of Zoology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Jos, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria.

⁴Department of Pest Management Technology, Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, Federal College of Forestry, PMB 2019, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria.

⁵Department of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria.

*Correspondence Author: yakop.dakum@fulokoja.edu.ng

ABSTRACT

Malaria vector surveillance offers data to aid in the successful planning of vector management. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the malaria vectors present indoors in some selected rural communities in Qua’an-Pan Local Government Area, Plateau State, North Central Nigeria. Endophilic mosquitoes were collected in the morning hours using the pyrethrum spray catch technique. Samples were sorted and identified using standard entomological keys. Thereafter, entomological transmission indices were analyzed. A total of 1,499 female Anopheles mosquitoes were collected, which belonged to five species, namely Anopheles gambiae and An. funestus, An. coustani, An. rufipes and An. pretoriensis. The predominant species was Anopheles gambiae, 1,278 (85.26%), followed by An. funestus, 103 (6.87%), while the least abundant was An. pretoriensis 10 (0.67%). Thus, there was a significant difference (χ² = 4008.95, df = 4, P= 0.0001) in mosquito abundance across species. The month of July recorded the highest indoor resting density (IRD) of 11 Anopheles mosquitoes/room/night, while February had the least with 1 mosquito/room/night, and differences between months significantly varied (χ² = 24.26, df = 11, P = 0.012). Similarly, the preponderant man biting rate (MBR) of 4 mosquito bites per person per night was still recorded in July, while the least MBR was recorded in both January and March with about one mosquito bite per person per night, but differences were not significant (χ² = 7.893, df = 11, P = 0.723). The overall one-year MBR was approximately 2 Anopheles mosquito bites/man/ night. Most of the female mosquitoes were fed 649 (43%). A high proportion of freshly fed mosquitoes (43%) indicates an ongoing risk of malaria transmission. The dominance of Anopheles gambiae in the study area necessitates continuous vector monitoring and intentional control measures.

Keywords: Malaria vectors, Anopheles gambiae, Indoor resting density, Man biting rate, Seasonal variations, Rural Nigeria

STUDY HIGHLIGHT

This study examined indoor malaria vectors in rural communities of Qua’an-Pan LGA, Plateau State, Nigeria. A total of 1,499 female Anopheles mosquitoes from five species were collected, with Anopheles gambiae being predominant (85.26%). July recorded the highest indoor resting density and man biting rate. Findings indicate active malaria transmission risk, emphasizing the need for continuous vector surveillance and effective control strategies in the study area.

INTRODUCTION

Mosquitoes are insects that consume blood and are widely distributed around the world (Irikannu et al., 2020). They breed around human habitations in bodies of stagnant water (Egbuche et al., 2020). Mosquito bites and noise nuisance are considered public health adversaries since they have been linked to the spread of disease and sleep disturbances (Li et al., 2021). They are acknowledged vectors of various viral diseases, including dengue fever, yellow fever, and Rift Valley fever, in addition to parasitic diseases such as filariasis and malaria (Wilkerson et al., 2021).

The genus Anopheles comprises more than 400 mosquito species, with only about 30 of them being implicated in the transmission of malaria (Meyers et al., 2016). Anopheles gambiae sensu lato (s. l.) and Anopheles funestus are the primary vectors in sub-Saharan Africa, owing to their significant ability to transmit Plasmodium falciparum, the most virulent Plasmodium species, and their pronounced anthropophilic behaviour (Sinka et al., 2020). The two primary vectors in sub-Saharan Africa are Anopheles gambiae sensu lato (s.l.) and Anopheles funestus, which have high competence in spreading Plasmodium falciparum, the most lethal Plasmodium species, and a strong anthropophilic tendency (Sinka et al., 2020).

The primary malaria vectors in Nigeria are Anopheles gambiae s. s. Anopheles arabiensis, Anopheles coluzzii, and the patchily Anopheles funestus s. s. (Ibrahim et al., 2020). Malaria is a severe public health disease caused by Plasmodium parasites, which are spread by female Anopheles mosquitoes when they feed on human blood (WHO, 2020). Awosolu et al. (2021) identified Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, and Plasmodium ovale as the four principal malaria parasites that affect humans, while Plasmodium knowlesi is a zoonotic species found primarily in Southeast Asia.

The primary malaria parasites affecting humans are Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, and Plasmodium ovale; Plasmodium knowlesi is a zoonotic species prevalent in Southeast Asia (Awosolu et al., 2021). Malaria is a global public health and socioeconomic issue that affects roughly 234 million people in Africa (WHO, 2022). Mozambique (3.8%), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (13.2%), Nigeria (31.9%), and the United Republic of Tanzania (4.1%) account for over half of all malaria-related deaths globally (Semakula et al., 2023). The settings of most African towns promote the reproduction of malaria vectors due to poor housing, inadequate drainage systems, and insufficient sanitation (Hassen & Dinka, 2020). The economic impact of malaria in Africa is reported to be $12 billion annually, resulting from higher medical expenses, lost productivity, and a decline in tourism (CDC, 2021). It is estimated that malaria costs Africa $12 billion a year due to increased medical costs, lost productivity, and a drop in tourism (CDC, 2021).

According to Russell et al. (2020), entomological surveillance facilitates an understanding of regional and temporal shifts in vector species, as well as the efficacy of malaria vector control measures. Despite extensive vector surveillance in Nigeria, data from Qua'an-pan, a major agricultural hub with unique microclimates, remain scarce. This study addresses this gap by quantifying the species composition, seasonal abundance, and physiological states of indoor-resting vectors to inform localized control efforts.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area

This study was conducted in Qua’an-Pan LGA of Plateau State. The L.G.A is located between latitudes 8^o 48' - 8.800^o N and longitudes 9^o 9' - 9.150^o E. The area experiences two seasons in a year - the dry season (November to March) and the wet season (April to October)- with an average temperature of 28℃ and an elevation of 218 m (715 ft). The majority of the inhabitants are farmers, with a few civil servants. The inhabitants of the locality are renowned for producing a significant amount of guinea corn, rice, and yams.

Figure 1: Sites Surveyed for Malaria Vectors in Qua’an-Pan LGA, Plateau State, Nigeria

Study Design

Over a period of twelve (12) months, a longitudinal entomological study was conducted in the Qua'an-Pan Local Government Area of Plateau State, Nigeria. Four districts were randomly selected and sampled for the entomological investigation. Two (2) communities in each of the four (4) districts were chosen at random for the investigation. Out of the two (2) communities in every district, eight (8) households were selected at random and sampled for malaria vectors.

Ethical Clearance

Ethical clearance from the Plateau State Specialist Hospital Ethics Review Committee was obtained before the study commenced, bearing approval number (Reg. No. NHREC/05/01/2010b and Ref. No. PSSH/ADM/ETH.CO/2019/005). The locality's first-class chief granted permission for the study, and letters of notification were sent to the district heads prior to the study's commencement. Also, assent from the homeowners and community leaders was sought while the privacy of the household members was preserved.

Mosquito Sampling

The Pyrethrum spray catch (PSC) technique was used to collect the mosquitoes, as described by Williams and Pinto (2012) and Onyido et al. (2016). According to Abdoon and Alshahrani (2003), the technique is considered the most effective in capturing endophilic and anthropophagic mosquitoes. In this method, indoor resting mosquitoes were collected from 6:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m. Nigerian time. In order to identify the mosquitoes that had been knocked down, white sheets were placed on the floor of each room. Then, a non-residual pyrethrum was sprayed throughout the room in a clockwise direction, moving toward the ceiling, until the entire space was covered with a fine mist. The room was then closed for ten minutes and reopened afterward. Beginning at the door of the room, the white sheet was lifted by its corners and carried outdoors. Every mosquito that was knocked down was collected with a forceps and placed in a petri dish lined with damp filter paper.

Morphological Identification of Mosquitoes

A morphological identification key created by Gilles and Coetzee (1987), Kent (2006), and Coetzee (2020) was utilised for the identification of mosquitoes. Anopheles mosquitoes were classified into species based on the morphological traits of their maxillary palps, wing spot patterns, and leg scales, with the aid of a dissecting microscope. Silica gel desiccants were used to preserve individual mosquito samples in Eppendorf tubes.

Assessment of the Physiological Condition of Indoor-Captured Mosquitoes

The physiological conditions of female mosquitoes captured indoors were assessed to analyse those with blood meals and those without. The mosquitoes were categorized into four groups: half-gravid, freshly-fed, unfed, and gravid (Service, 1985).

Determination of Indoor resting density and man-biting rate of mosquitoes

Williams and Pinto (2012) used a formula to calculate the indoor resting density (IRD) of female mosquitoes per structure per night and the man-biting rate (MBR) a person received from a specific vector per night.

IRD = Total number of vectors collected/[Total number of rooms sprayed]

MBR = Number of mosquitoes collected/[Number of people that slept in the room]

Statistical Analysis

Minitab statistical software (version 21.2) was used to analyze the collected data. Pearson’s Chi-square test was used to compare the abundance of mosquitoes across species, entomological indices, and physiological conditions, respectively. The level of significance was set at P < 0.05.

RESULTS

Anopheles Mosquitoes composition in Qua’an-Pan LGA, Plateau State, Nigeria

A total of 1,499 indoor resting female Anopheles mosquitoes were collected across five species, namely, Anopheles gambiae, An. funestus, An. coustani, An. rufipes and An. pretoriensis (Table 1). The predominant mosquito species caught was Anopheles gambiae (1278, 85.26%), followed by An. funestus (103, 6.87%), and An. coustani 81 (5.40%), An. rufipes 27 (1.80%) while An. pretoriensis was the least in abundance with 10(0.67%) (Table 1). Hence, there was a significant difference (χ² = 4008.95, df = 4, P = 0.0001) in abundance across the five Anopheles species collected. The striking morphological features used to identify the five Anopheles species is shown in Table 1.1. and the respective images are shown in Plate 1.

Table 1: Checklist of Anopheles Mosquitoes in Qua’an-Pan LGA, Plateau State, Nigeria

Table 1.1: Morphological Identification of the Five Anopheles Species Collected in Relation to Their Respective Unique Observed Morphological Features

Plate 1: Malaria Vectors Present in Qua’an-Pan LGA, Plateau State, Nigeria

Population of Anopheles Mosquitoes in Relation to House Types

The result of the mean abundance of Anopheles species collected in relation to house type showed that the average abundance of Anopheles mosquitoes based on house types was higher in a mud/cement house with a zinc roof (113.0 individuals) than mud house with thatch roof (11.9 individuals). Hence, there was a significant difference (F₁ = 16.11, Adj. R² = 6.13%, P = 0.001, Figure 2) in the average abundance of Anopheles mosquitoes between the two house types.

Figure 2: Mean abundance of Anopheles mosquitoes collected in relation to house types

Monthly Indoor Resting Density across Anopheles Species

The overall anopheline monthly average indoor resting density (IRD) all year round (at any period of the year) was 3.90 mosquitoes/room/night, as shown in Table 2. The species-wise monthly average IRD at any time of the year for An. gambiae, An. funestus, An. coustani, An. rufipes, An. pretoriensis was 3.32, 0.27, 0.21, 0.07, and 0.03 mosquitoes/room/night, respectively (Table 2).

The month of July recorded the highest anopheline indoor resting density of 11.1 female Anopheles mosquitoes per room/night followed 6.2 female Anopheles mosquitoes/room/night in August and September, respectively, while the least IRD of of 1.3, 1.2, and 1.4 female Anopheles mosquitoes/room/night, respectively, were observed in the month of January, February and March as shown in Table 2. Hence, anopheline IRD across the months varied significantly (χ² = 24.26, df = 11, P = 0.012).

The peak IRD for An. gambiae and An. funestus, respectively, was in the month of July (10.47 mosquitoes per room/night) and August (0.59 mosquitoes per room/night), while their very low IRD was recorded in February (0.81 mosquitoes per room/night) and December (0.06 mosquitoes per room/night) (Table 2). With the exception of An. gambiae, the differences in IRD across the months for each Anopheles species showed no significant difference (P > 0.05) as shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Monthly Indoor Resting Density (IRD) Across Anopheles Species

Monthly Man Biting Rate (MBR) Across Anopheles Species

The pooled monthly man biting rate (MBR) of Anopheles species on average was 1.57 mosquitoes’ bites per man per night all year round. The month of July recorded the highest man biting rate of the bites of 4 female Anopheles mosquitoes/person/night followed by August 2.5 bites /person/night, September 2.3 bites/person/night while the least MBR per person per night in descending order was recorded in the month of November (0.83) > December (0.71) > February (0.63) > January (0.62) = March (0.62) as shown in Table 3. However, there was no significant difference (χ² = 7.893, df = 11, P= 0.723) between anopheline monthly man biting rate.

Species specific MBR revealed that An. gambiae had the highest average monthly MBR of 1.33 mosquito bites/man/night all year round, followed by An. funestus and An. coustani with 0.11 and 0.09 mosquito bites/person/night, whereas An. pretoriensis had the least mosquito bite of 0.1 /person/night as seen in Table 3. The MBR based on months for each Anopheles species was not significant (P > 0.05).

Table 3: Monthly Man Biting Rate (MBR) of Anopheles Species

Abdominal Conditions of Female Anopheles Mosquitoes Caught

A very high number of the female Anopheles mosquitoes caught were freshly fed individuals 649 (43%) followed by unfed ones 376 (25%) then those gravid 286 (19%) while the least was half gravid 188 (13%) as shown in Table 4, and differences between abdominal conditions differed significantly (χ² = 314.79, df = 3, P = 0.0001).

Table 4: Abdominal Conditions of Female Mosquitoes Caught

DISCUSSION

The 1,499 indoor resting female Anopheles mosquitoes recorded in this study are of public health concern. The five Anopheles species (Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles funestus, Anopheles coustani, Anopheles rufipes, and Anopheles pretoriensis) encountered in this research are comparable to those obtained in past studies by Umar et al. (2021) and Osidoma et al. (2023), who identified Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles funestus, Anopheles coustani, and An. nili is the predominant Anopheles species in human habitation in Birshin Fulani village, Bauchi State, North-East Nigeria, and Doma LGA of Nasarawa State, North Central Nigeria, respectively. Among the five species identified in this research, Anopheles gambiae was the most abundant species, 1278 (85.26%). This may be due to the presence of numerous mosquito breeding sites in the area. This is in agreement with Chikezie et al. (2021), Osidoma et al. (2023), and Ombugadu et al. (2024a, b), who found that Anopheles gambiae was the most common mosquito species in Uyo, Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria, and Nassarawa Eggon LGA and Nasarawa LGA, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. The results of this study also support those of Garba et al. (2020), that in sub-Saharan Africa and in Nigeria specifically, where the burden of malaria is at its peak, Anopheles gambiae is the primary malaria vector. Hien et al. (2020) also noted that An. gambiae was the most dominant species, accounting for 88% of all the vectors collected and also the most infected species. On the contrary, Ombugadu et al. (2022) and Benson et al. (2025) reported that An. gambiae had a low indoor abundance of 13.25% and 25.66%, respectively, in a peri-urban landscape in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Also, in the investigation of indoor resting points of the main malaria vectors in western Kenya, Kawada et al. (2021) collected more female An. funestus s. l. (1499) than female An. gambiae s. l. (288).

Saili et al. (2023), in their investigation of Anopheles rufipes implicated in the indoor and outdoor transmission of malaria, found that Anopheles funestus was more common than Anopheles gambiae in rural south-east Zambia. Similarly, An. funestus was reported as the second most abundant (20.62%) malaria vector in a recent literature on vectors and malaria transmission in Bauchi State, Nigeria (Kurmi et al., 2024). The presence of An. funestus, as the second most abundant species in this study, is in accordance with the finding of Matowo et al. (2021), who reported that An. funestus has shown relatively high vectorial capacity. According to Russell et al. (2011), Anopheles funestus s. L., which is both anthropophilic and endophilic, is becoming increasingly significant in the spread of malaria in many parts of Africa, such as members of the Anopheles gambiae complex. Bamou et al. (2018) reported that mosquito species, including An. coustani, An. pretoriensis, and An. moucheti, which were previously thought to be minor vectors of malaria, have lately been shown to play a major part in the transmission of malaria, along with several members of the An. gambiae complex (An. merus). Research by Saili et al. (2023) revealed that An. rufipes may have a role in the spread of malaria, despite its stated zoophilic, exophilic, and exophagic inclinations.

Anopheles mosquito indoor resting density (IRD) and man-biting rates (MBR) are indicators of human-vector interaction. Tangena et al. (2015) and Ombugadu et al. (2024c) reported that indoor resting density and man-biting rate are used to quantify the risk of infection with mosquito-borne pathogens. In this study, the highest indoor resting density was recorded in July, with a total of 11.1 Anopheles mosquitoes per room. This may be attributed to the favorable tropical weather conditions available in July, as well as the availability of breeding grounds in the sampled research communities. This agrees with the An. gambiae IRD findings of 18.05 and 25.4 mosquitoes per room per night in two LGAs of Nasarawa State, Nigeria, respectively (Osidoma et al., 2023; Ombugadu et al., 2024c). Our IRD finding aligns with the range reported by Umar et al. (2015), who found that female Anopheles mosquitoes had a greater indoor resting density (9.10 – 14.00) during the late rainy seasons. Ebenezer et al. (2013) found that An. gambiae had a room density of 20.5 mosquitoes per room in the lowland rainforest of Bayelsa State, Nigeria, which was greater than what was obtained in this study. However, the result obtained in this study was higher than the reports of Irikannu et al. (2020) and Ogbuefi and Aribodor (2023), who recorded indoor resting densities (IRD) of 2.20 and 1.40 mosquitoes per room, respectively. At the month-wise and species-specific levels, Anopheles gambiae had the highest monthly indoor resting density of 10.47 mosquitoes per room in July. This could be attributed to their preference for indoor feeding and resting. Ferreira et al. (2017) reported that Anopheles gambiae takes a rest indoors following blood feeding.

The highest monthly man-biting rate of 4 female Anopheles mosquitoes per person per night was recorded in the month of July. This is in line with the MBR of 8.5 and 4.51 mosquito bites per man per night as reported by Osidoma et al. (2023) and Ombugadu et al. (2024c). Similarly, Ogbuefi and Aribodor (2023) recorded an average MBR of 5.05 mosquitoes per person per night. Interestingly, Ebenezer et al. (2013) recorded an An. gambiae MBR of 8.7 bites per person per night in Bayelsa State, Nigeria, which was higher than our finding. Ezihe et al. (2017) recorded a man biting rate of approximately 4 mosquitoes per person in Enugu State, which was far higher than the findings of Irikannu et al. (2020) whose highest MBR was only 1.0 bites per person per night. Irikannu et al. (2019) in previous studies also recorded a low rate of man-biting, at 0.017 bites /person per night/night in Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.

Anopheles gambiae exhibited the greatest human biting rate of 3.85 bites per individual in July. This is less than the results of Kouassi et al. (2023), who documented mean man-biting rates of 48.5, 81.4, and 26.6 bites per person each night in the Béoumi, Dabakala, and Nassian regions of Côte d’Ivoire, respectively. The high biting rates exhibited by Anopheles gambiae in this study were not surprising, as Anopheles mosquitoes prefer to live and feed indoors, as well as feed on human blood. Loaiza et al. (2008) asserted that to evade severe outside environmental circumstances, Anopheles mosquitoes exhibit a propensity for endophagy, endophily, and anthropophagy. The maximum human biting rates and indoor resting density of Anopheles mosquitoes observed in July may be attributed to favourable climatic circumstances and the abundant presence of the vectors.

More mosquitoes were collected in a mud/cement house with a zinc roof than in a mud house with a thatched roof. This is similar to the research of Njila et al. (2022a), who recorded a higher population of An. gambiae in a house type whose combination is of mud and cement over strictly mud or cement-only house types in Jos North LGA, Plateau State. On the other hand, Ombugadu et al. (2022) showed that a higher number of indoor resting mosquitoes (62.05%) were captured in cement block houses than in mud and mud/cement structures. Additionally, Ondiba et al. (2018) found that buildings with grass-thatched roofs had a greater abundance of malaria vectors than those with corrugated iron sheet roofs. Okech et al. (2004) found that mosquitoes resting indoors in homes with corrugated iron roofs survived just as well as those in homes with grass thatch, despite the higher temperatures inside the former. According to Lindsay et al. (2019), mosquitoes in metal-roofed homes tend to migrate from heated roofs to cooler areas near the floor in order to survive. This behavior could ensure their survival, thereby increasing their abundance in the metal-roof houses.

The literature by Okuneye et al. (2019) on the gonotrophic cycle of adult female mosquitoes categorized them as either being unfed, blood-fed, half-gravid, or gravid. Most of the adult female Anopheles mosquitoes in this study were freshly fed (649, 43%). This implies a high likelihood of malaria infection transmission if, perhaps, the mosquitoes harbor the infective stage of Plasmodium. This finding aligns with the results of Ombugadu et al. (2020) and Ombugadu et al. (2022), who reported that most female mosquitoes caught in students’ hostels at the Federal University of Lafia and in a peri-urban community were blood-fed, at 72 (69.2%) and 308 (67.10%), respectively. Kawada et al. (2021) in their study also reported that blood-fed mosquitoes were most abundant compared to other physiological conditions. Additionally, a study in the southern part of Gombe State, Northeast Nigeria, revealed that most endophagic Anopheles gambiae fed on human blood (Maikenti et al., 2025). However, Njila et al. (2022b) in their study on the gonotrophic stages of indoor resting mosquitoes in the lecture halls of the University of Jos also found that unfed female mosquitoes were the majority, at 1,441 (78.10%). Similarly, another study reported that unfed female mosquitoes were very high in number, at 2098 (45.9%), compared to other abdominal conditions (Ebenezer et al., 2013).

CONCLUSION

This study identifies Anopheles gambiae as the primary vector in Qua'an-pan, with transmission risk peaking in July. Targeted indoor spraying and net distribution before July are hereby recommended. The findings of this study provide a baseline for evaluating vector control interventions in agriculturally active regions of North Central Nigeria.

REFERENCES

Abdoon, A. M., & Alshahrani, A. M. (2003). Prevalence and distribution of anopheline mosquitoes in malaria endemic areas of Asir region Saudi Arabia. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 9(3), 240–247. [Crossref]

Awosolu, O. B., Yahaya, Z. S., Farah Haziqah, M. T., Simon-Oke, I. A., & Fakunle, C. (2021). A cross-sectional study of the prevalence, density, and risk factors associated with malaria transmission in urban communities of Ibadan, Southwestern Nigeria. Heliyon, 7(1), e05975. [Crossref]

Bamou, R., Mbakop, L. R., & Kopya, E. (2018). Changes in malaria vector bionomics and transmission patterns in the equatorial forest region of Cameroon between 2000 and 2017. Parasites & Vectors, 11(1), 464. [Crossref]

Benson, R. F., Ombugadu, A., Maikenti, J. I., Ashigar, M. A., Ahmed, H. O., Aimankhu, O. P., Lapang, P. M., Ali, A. A., Nwokocha, C. E., Sangari, J. S., Adamu, A. I., Yina, G. I., & Pam, V. A. (2025). Molecular characterization and malaria transmission potential of Anopheles gambiae complex in Central Nigeria. Direct Research Journal of Public Health and Environmental Technology, 10(1), 37–45.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Malaria worldwide—Impact of malaria.

Chikezie, F. M., Opara, K. N., Akaka, B., Ezihe, E. K., Udoidung, N. I., & Yaro, C. A. (2021). Malaria vectors distribution, abundance and assessment of factors influencing acceptance and use of Insecticide Treated Nets in Uyo Akwa Ibom State Nigeria. African Journal of Biological Sciences, 3(1), 165–175. [Crossref]

Coetzee, M. (2020). Key to the females of Afrotropical Anopheles mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). Malaria Journal, 19, 70. [Crossref]

Ebenezer, A., Ben, H. I. B., & Enaregha, E. B. (2013). Atial distribution and indoor-resting density of mosquito species in the lowland rainforest of Bayelsa State, Nigeria. International Journal of Tropical Medicine, 8(4), 87–91.

Egbuche, C. M., Onyido, A. E., Umeanaeto, P. U., Nwankwo, E. N., Omah, I. F., & Ukonze, C. B. (2024). Anopheles species composition and some climatic factors that influence their survival and population abundance in Anambra East LGA, Anambra State, Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of Parasitology and Innovative Research in Biotechnology, 3(1), 01–06.

Ezihe, E. K., Chikezie, F. M., Egbuche, C. M., Nwankwo, E. N., Onyido, A. E., Aribodor, D., & Samdi, M. L. (2017). Seasonal distribution and micro-climatic factors influencing the abundance of malaria vectors in south-east Nigeria. Journal of Mosquito Research, 7(3), 15–26. [Crossref]

Ferreira, D. A., Degener, C. M., De Almeida Marques-Toledo, C., Bendati, M. M., Fetzer, L. O., Teixeira, C. P., & Eiras, A. E. (2017). Meteorological variables and mosquito monitoring are good predictors for infestation trends of Aedes aegypti, the vector of dengue, chikungunya and zika. Parasites & Vectors, 10, 78. [Crossref]

Garba, L. C., Oyieke, F. A., Owino, E. A., Mwansat, G. S., & Williams Chintem, D. G. W. (2020). Molecular characterization and species composition of anopheline vectors of malaria along an altitudinal gradient on the highlands of Mambilla Plateau Northeast, Nigeria. African Journal of Biological Sciences, 2(1), 18–27. [Crossref]

Gillies, M. T., & Coetzee, M. A. (1987). Supplement to the Anophelinae of Africa South of the Sahara (Afrotropical region). Publications of the South African Institute for Medical Research.

Hassen, J., & Dinka, H. (2020). Retrospective analysis of urban malaria cases due to Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax: the case of Batu town, Oromia, Ethiopia. Heliyon, 6(3), e03616. [Crossref]

Hien, A. S., Soma, D. D., Sawadogo, S. P., Poda, S. B., Namountougou, M., Ouedraogo, G. A., … & Dabire, R. (2020). Effect of Bendiocarb (Ficam® 80% WP) on entomological indices of malaria transmission by indoor residual spraying in Burkina Faso, West Africa. Advances in Entomology, 8, 158–178. [Crossref]

Ibrahim, S. S., Mukhtar, M. M., Riveron, J. M., Fadel, A. N., Tchapga, W., Hearn, J., et al. (2020). Exploring the mechanisms of multiple insecticide resistance in a highly Plasmodium-infected malaria vector Anopheles funestus sensu stricto from Sahel. Genes, 11(454), 1–15. [Crossref]

Irikannu, K. C., Onyido, A. E., Nwankwo, E. N., Umeanaeto, P. U., Onwube, O., Ogaraku, J. C., … & Okoduwa, A. U. (2020). A survey of man-biting mosquito species in a tropical rainforest community in the South Eastern Nigeria. Environment and Ecology, 38(3), 290–299.

Irikannu, K. C., Onyido, A. E., Umeanaeto, P. U., Onwube, O., Ogaraku, J. C., Egbuche, C. M., … & Jimoh, T. R. (2019). Molecular characterization and malaria transmission potential of Anopheles gambiae complex in Awka, Anambra state, Nigeria. International Journal of Mosquito Research, 6(6), 96–1.

Jeffrey, G. E. H., Walker, K. R., Ernst, K. C., Riehle, M. A., & Davidowitz, G. (2020). Size as a proxy for survival in Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes. Journal of Medical Entomology, 57, 1228–1238. [Crossref]

Kawada, H., Gabriel, D. O., Sonye, G., Njenga, S. M., Minakawa, N., & Takagi, M. (2021). Indoor resting places of the major malaria vectors in western Kenya. Japanese Journal of Environmental Entomology and Zoology, 3(2), 47–52.

Kent, R. J. (2006). The mosquitoes of Macha, Zambia [Doctoral dissertation, Johns Hopkins University].

Kouassi, B. L., Edi, C., Ouattara, A. F., Ekra, A. K., Bellai, L. G., Gouaméné, J., … & Chabi, J. (2023). Entomological monitoring data driving decision-making for appropriate and sustainable malaria vector control in Côte d'Ivoire. Malaria Journal, 22(1), 14. [Crossref]

Kurmi, U. M., Nanvyat, N., Lapang, M. P., Mafuyai, J. M., Isah, L., Ombugadu, A., Yina, G. I., Otakpa, E. O., Simse, R. L., & Mwansat, G. S. (2024). Vectors, knowledge, attitudes, and practices in relation to malaria transmission in Bauchi State, Nigeria. Journal of Vector Borne Diseases, 61(2), 176–182. [Crossref]

Li, Z., Wang, J., Cheng, X., Hu, H., Guo, C., & Huang, J. (2021). The worldwide seroprevalence of DENV, CHIKV and ZIKV infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 15, e0009337. [Crossref]

Lindsay, S. W., Jawara, M., Mwesigwa, J., Achan, J., Bayoh, N., Bradley, J., Kandeh, B., Kirby, M. J., Knudsen, J., Macdonald, M., Pinder, M., Tusting, L. S., Weiss, D. J., Wilson, A. L., & D'Alessandro, U. (2019). Reduced mosquito survival in metal-roof houses may contribute to a decline in malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa. Scientific Reports, 9, 7770. [Crossref]

Loaiza, I. R., Bermingham, E., Scott, M., Rovira, I. R., & Conns, J. E. (2008). Species composition and distribution of adult Anopheles (Diptera: Culicidae) in Panama. Journal of Medical Entomology, 45(5), 841–851. [Crossref]

Maikenti, J. I., Pam, V. A., Ombugadu, A., Koggie, A. Z., Yina, G. I., Aliyu, A. A., Ajiji, A. J., Ashigar, M. A., & Omalu, I. C. J. (2025). Molecular characterisation of Anopheles gambiae complex and its preferred blood-meal hosts in the southern part of Gombe State, Northeast Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, 46(1), 36–45. [Crossref]

Matowo, N. S., Martin, J., Kulkarni, M. A., Mosha, J. F., Lukole, E., Isaya, G., Shirima, B., Kaaya, R., Moyes, C., Hancock, P. A., Rowland, M., ... & Messenger, L. A. (2021). An increasing role of pyrethroid-resistant Anopheles funestus in malaria transmission in the Lake Zone, Tanzania. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 13457. [Crossref]

Meyers, J. I., Pathikonda, S., Popkin-Hall, Z. R., Medeiros, M. C., Fuseini, G., Matias, A., … & Slotman, M. A. (2016). Increasing outdoor host-seeking in Anopheles gambiae over 6 years of vector control on Bioko Island. Malaria Journal, 15, 239. [Crossref]

Njila, H. L., Ngwa, I. K., Bilham, I. Y., & Ombugadu, A. (2022a). Infection status of mosquitoes in Kunga community of Jos North Local Government Area, Plateau State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, 43(2), 385–391. [Crossref]

Njila, H. L., Tamai, J. S., Ombugadu, A., & Mafuyai, M. J. (2022b). Species composition and gonotrophic stages of indoor resting mosquitoes in lecture halls of University of Jos, Nigeria. Transactions on Science and Technology, 9(3), 159–170.

Ogbuefi, E. O., & Aribodor, D. N. (2023). Assessing the entomological parameters of malaria vectors in Anambra State, Southeast Nigeria. Asian Journal of Research in Zoology, 6(3), 1–15. [Crossref]

Okech, B. A., Gouagna, L. C., Knols, B. G. J., Kabiru, E. W., Killeen, G. F., & Beier, J. C. (2004). Influence of indoor microclimate and diet on survival of Anopheles gambiae s. s. (Diptera: Culicidae) in village house conditions in western Kenya. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 24, 207–212. [Crossref]

Okuneye, K., Eikenberry, S. E., & Gumel, A. B. (2019). Weather-driven malaria transmission model with gonotrophic and sporogonic cycles. Journal of Biological Dynamics, 13(1), 288–324. [Crossref]

Ombugadu, A., Jibril, A. B., Mwansat, G. S., Njila, H. L., Attah, A. S., Pam, V. A., Benson, R. F., … & Nkup, C. D. (2022). Composition and distribution of mosquito vectors in a peri-urban community surrounding an institution of learning in Lafia Metropolis, Nasarawa State, Central Nigeria. Journal of Zoological Research, 4(3), 20–31. [Crossref]

Ombugadu, A., Maikenti, J. I., Maro, S. A., Vincent, S. O., Polycarp, I. A., Pam, V. A., Samuel, M. D., Adejoh, V. A., Attah, A. S., Ahmed, H. O., …& Angbalaga, G. A. (2020). Survey of mosquitoes in students hostels of Federal University of Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research, 28(4), 21822–21830. [Crossref]

Ombugadu, A., Muhammed, S. U., Maikenti, J. I., Ali, A. A., Ashigar, M. A., Ahmed, H. O., Igboanugo, S. I., Yina, G. I., & Pam, V. A. (2024b). Mosquito species composition in Nasarawa Local Government Area, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. UMYU Scientifica, 3(4), 46–56. [Crossref]

Ombugadu, A., Nanvyat, N., & Mwansat, G. S. (2024a). The novel Prokopack aspirator versus popular pyrethrum spray catch: Assessment of the composition and abundance of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato in Nasarawa State, Central Nigeria. Biomedical Journal of Science & Technical Research, 58(1), 49938–49946. [Crossref]

Ombugadu, A., Nanvyat, N., & Mwansat, G. S. (2024c). Population dynamics of the major anopheline vector in Nasarawa State, Central Nigeria, using the Novel Prokopack Aspirator and an existing protocol. Zoological and Entomological Letters, 4(2), 28–33.

Ondiba, I. M., Oyieke, F. A., Ong'amo, G. O., Olumula, M. M., Nyamongo, I. K., & Estambale, B. A. (2018). Malaria vector abundance is associated with house structures in Baringo County, Kenya. PLOS ONE, 13(6), e0198970. [Crossref]

Onyido, A. E., Ezeani, A. C., Irikannu, K. C., Umeanaeto, P. U., Egbuche, C. M., Chikezie, F. M., & Ugha, C. N. (2016). Anthropophilic mosquito species prevalence in Nibo community, Awka South Local Government Area, Anambra State, South Eastern Nigeria. Ewemen Journal of Epidemiology and Clinical Medicine, 2(1), 14–20.

Osidoma, E. O., Pam, V. A., Uzoigwe, N. R., Ombugadu, A., Omalu, I. C. J., Maikenti, J. I., Attah, A. S., Ashigar, M. A., & Dogo, S. K. (2023). A study on mosquitoes composition and malaria transmission in some communities in Doma Local Government Area of Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Journal of Bioscience and Biotechnology Discovery, 8(1), 10–17. [Crossref]

Russell, T. L., Farlow, R., Min, M., Espino, E., Mnzava, A., & Burkot, T. R. (2020). Capacity of National Malaria Control Programmes to implement vector surveillance: A global analysis. Malaria Journal, 19, 422. [Crossref]

Russell, T. L., Govella, N. J., Azizi, S., Drakeley, C. J., Kachur, S. P., & Killeen, G. F. (2011). Increased proportions of outdoor feeding among residual malaria vector populations following increased use of insecticide-treated nets in rural Tanzania. Malaria Journal, 10, 80. [Crossref]

Saili, K., de Jager, C., Sangoro, O. P., Nkya, T. E., Masaninga, F., Mwenya, M., Sinyolo, A., Hamainza, B., Chanda, E., Fillinger, U., & Mutero, C. M. (2023). Anopheles rufpes implicated in malaria transmission both indoors and outdoors alongside Anopheles funestus and Anopheles arabiensis in rural south-east Zambia. Malaria Journal, 22, 95. [Crossref]

Semakula, M., Niragire, F., & Faes, C. (2023). Spatio-temporal Bayesian models for malaria risk using survey and health facility routine data in Rwanda. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(5), 4283. [Crossref]

Service, M. W. (1985). A guide to medical entomology. Macmillian Tropical and Sub Tropical Medical Texts.

Sinka, M. E., Pironon, S., Massey, N. C., Longbottom, J., Hemingway, J., Moyes, C. L., & Willis, K. J. (2020). A new malaria vector in Africa: Predicting the expansion range of Anopheles stephensi and identifying the urban population at risk. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117, 24900–24908. [Crossref]

Tangena, J. A. A., Thammavong, P., Hiscox, A., Lindsay, S. W., & Brey, P. T. (2015). The human-baited double net trap: An alternative to human landing catches for collecting outdoor biting mosquitoes in Lao PDR. PLOS ONE, 10(9), e0138735. [Crossref]

Umar, A., Kirfi, S. B., Isa, A. S., Ahmed, A., & Hayatu, H. S. (2021). Assessment of indoor resting density of female anopheline mosquitoes in human residence at Birshin fulani village, Bauchi, Bauchi State. Global Scientific Journal, 9(1), 1–14.

Wilkerson, R. C., Linton, Y. M., & Strickman, D. (2021). Mosquitoes of the world (Vols. 1–2). Johns Hopkins University Press. [Crossref]

Williams, J., & Pinto, J. (2012). Training manual on malaria entomology for entology and control technicians (basic level).

World Health Organization. (2020). World malaria report: 20 years of global progress and challenges. [Link]

World Health Organization. (2022). Global framework for the response to malaria in urban areas. World Health Organization.