Geospatial Assessment of Malaria Health Risk in Kaduna North Local Government Area of Kaduna State
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.56919/usci.2541.028Keywords:
Malaria, Analytical Hierarchy Process,, Geographic Information System, Kaduna North LGAAbstract
This paper examined malaria vulnerability using geospatial techniques in Kaduna North Local Government Area of Kaduna State. Data on malaria cases was obtained from Kaduna State Primary Healthcare Board. Satellite imageries, including Landsat 8 (OLS/TIRS) and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM), were obtained from the United States Geological Survey Agency. Data analysis was carried out using spatial analysis on ArcGIS 10.8 and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). The study revealed that Kawo, Hayin Banki, and Unguwar Rimi wards had the highest cases of malaria diagnosed using Rapid Diagnostic Testing (RDT). Using microscopy, Unguwar Sarki had the highest number of cases, with 2,591. On the other hand, Unguwar Rimi had the highest number of cases of malaria using clinical diagnosis. Among pregnant women, Unguwar Rimi had the highest number of RDT-diagnosed malaria cases, with 3,352, but Unguwar Sarki recorded the highest number of cases using microscopy. The hotspot analysis detected three malaria hotspots in the LGA with varying degrees of confidence (90% to 99%). The combination of AHP and weighted overlay in vulnerability mapping revealed that 56% of the LGA had high vulnerability, while 13% had very high vulnerability. Driving factors included proximity to water bodies, land surface temperature and elevation. The study concluded that RDT and microscopy are the most widely used malaria diagnostic methods. The study recommended that new housing projects should not be approved close to the water bodies to reduce malaria health risks in the LGA.
References
Abdelsattar, A., & Hassan, A. N. (2021). Assessment of malaria resurgence vulnerability in Fayoum, Egypt using remote sensing and GIS. The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Science, 24(1), 77-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2020.01.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2020.01.004
Abdulahi, A., Wudad, A., Abajihad, M., & Mohammed, F. (2020). Malaria hazard and risk analysis using GIS and remote sensing in Korahey Zone of Somali Regional State, Eastern Ethiopia. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences, 68(1), 20-39.
Abubakar, M. L., & Abdussalam, A. F. (2024). Geospatial analysis of land use changes and wetland dynamics in Kaduna Metropolis, Kaduna, Nigeria. Science World Journal, 19(3), 687-696. https://doi.org/10.4314/swj.v19i3.15 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/swj.v19i3.15
Abubakar, M. L., Abdussalam, A. F., Ahmed, M. S., & Wada, A. I. (2024). Spatiotemporal variability of rainfall and drought characterization in Kaduna, Nigeria. Discover Environment, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-024-00112-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-024-00112-7
Abubakar, M. L., Ahmed, M. S., Abdussalam, A. F., & Mohammed, S. (2025). Meteorological drought and long-term trends and spatial variability of rainfall in the Niger River Basin, Nigeria. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 32(9), 5302-5319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-025-36048-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-025-36048-5
Adeola, A. M., Botai, O. J., Olwoch, J. M., Rautenbach, C. J. d. W., Adisa, O. M., Taiwo, O. J., & Kalumba, A. M. (2016). Environmental factors and population at risk of malaria in Nkomazi municipality, South Africa. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 21(5), 675-686. https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12680 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12680
Ahmed, M. S., Abubakar, M. L., Lawal, A. I., & Richifa, K. I. (2024). Influence of extreme temperature on adverse pregnancy outcomes in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Science World Journal, 19(2), 409-417. https://doi.org/10.4314/swj.v19i2.17 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/swj.v19i2.17
Akanbi, F. R. (2016). Socio-economic and demographic impact on malaria prevalence in Akoko South-west of Ondo state, Nigeria. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 45, 214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2016.02.488 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2016.02.488
Al Khaja, K. A. J., & Sequeira, R. P. (2021). Drug treatment and prevention of malaria in pregnancy: A critical review of the guidelines. Malaria Journal, 20(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-020-03565-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-020-03565-2
Andrade, M. V., Noronha, K., Diniz, B. P. C., Guedes, G., Carvalho, L. R., Silva, V. A., Calazans, J. A., Santos, A. S., Silva, D. N., & Castro, M. C. (2022). The economic burden of malaria: A systematic review. Malaria Journal, 21(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-022-04303-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-022-04303-6
Anjorin, S., Okolie, E., & Yaya, S. (2023). Malaria profile and socioeconomic predictors among under-five children: An analysis of 11 sub-Saharan African countries. Malaria Journal, 22(1), 55. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-023-04484-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-023-04484-8
Asori, M., Musah, A., Odei, J., Morgan, A. K., & Zurikanen, I. (2023). Spatio-temporal assessment of hotspots and seasonally adjusted environmental risk factors of malaria prevalence. Applied Geography, 160, 103104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2023.103104 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2023.103104
Azua, S., Youngu, T. T., Aliyu, Y. A., Komolafe, E. A., Ahmadu, A., A.Z, A., & Majekodunmi, Q. O. (2022). Appraising malaria incidence with spatial-oriented decision support system in parts of Zaria, Kaduna State-Nigeria. Journal of Geomatics, 16(2), 103-113. https://doi.org/10.58825/jog.2022.16.2.36 DOI: https://doi.org/10.58825/jog.2022.16.2.36
Baba, B. M., Abubakar, M. L., Raji, R. B., & Ibrahim, R. (2020). Spatial distribution of electric transformers in Narayi Ward, Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. Kaduna Journal of Geography, 2(2), 114-130. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14598765
Bajoga, U. A., Balarabe, H. S., Olufemi, A. A., Dalhat, M. M., Sule, I. B., Ibrahim, M. S., Adebowale, A. S., Adedokun, B. O., Yahaya, M., Oyeneye Ajayi, I. O., Nguku, P. M., & Ajumobi, O. O. (2019). Trend of malaria cases in Kaduna State using routine surveillance data, 2011-2015. Pan African Medical Journal, 32(Suppl 1). https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.supp.2019.32.1.13735 DOI: https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.supp.2019.32.1.13735
Benjamin, G. Y., Kanai, E. T., Moses, B. E., & Aluwong, G. S. (2018). Demographic factors associated with malaria prevalence in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Bayero Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 10(1), 116. https://doi.org/10.4314/bajopas.v10i1.24S DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/bajopas.v10i1.24S
Bhattarai, S., Blackburn, J. K., McKune, S. L., & Ryan, S. J. (2023). Spatio-temporal patterns of malaria in Nepal from 2005 to 2018: A country progressing towards malaria elimination. Spatial and Spatio-Temporal Epidemiology, 45, 100576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sste.2023.100576 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sste.2023.100576
Brown, G. W., Rhodes, N., Tacheva, B., Loewenson, R., Shahid, M., & Poitier, F. (2023). Challenges in international health financing and implications for the new pandemic fund. Globalization and Health, 19(1), 97. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-023-00999-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-023-00999-6
Bununu, Y. A., Ludin, A. N. M., & Hosni, N. (2015). City profile: Kaduna. Cities, 49, 53-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2015.07.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2015.07.004
Chen, T. T., Ljungqvist, F. C., Castenbrandt, H., Hildebrandt, F., Ingholt, M. M., Hesson, J. C., Ankarklev, J., Seftigen, K., & Linderholm, H. W. (2021). The spatiotemporal distribution of historical malaria cases in Sweden: A climatic perspective. Malaria Journal, 20(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-021-03744-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-021-03744-9
Damisa, S., & Hassan, S. M. (2021). Prevalence of malaria among pregnant women attending antenatal care in general hospital Saminaka, Lere Local Government Area, Kaduna State. Bayero Journal of Medical Laboratory Science, 6(2), 22-29.
Ding, X. C., Incardona, S., Serra-Casas, E., Charnaud, S. C., Slater, H. C., Domingo, G. J., Adams, E. R., ter Kuile, F. O., Samuels, A. M., Kariuki, S., & Dittrich, S. (2023). Malaria in pregnancy (MiP) studies assessing the clinical performance of highly sensitive rapid diagnostic tests (HS-RDT) for Plasmodium falciparum detection. Malaria Journal, 22(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-023-04445-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-023-04445-1
Ebong, C. E., Ali, I. M., Fouedjio, H. J., Essangui, E., Achu, D. F., Lawrence, A., & Sama, D. (2022). Diagnosis of malaria in pregnancy: Accuracy of CareStartTM malaria Pf/PAN against light microscopy among symptomatic pregnant women at the Central Hospital in Yaoundé, Cameroon. Malaria Journal, 21(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-022-04109-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-022-04109-6
Ekpa, D. E., Salubi, E. A., Olusola, J. A., & Akintade, D. (2023). Spatio-temporal analysis of environmental and climatic factors impacts on malaria morbidity in Ondo State, Nigeria. Heliyon, 9(3), e14005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14005
Food and Agriculture Organization. (2017). The future of food and agriculture: Trends and challenges. FAO.
Figueroa-Romero, A., Pons-Duran, C., & Gonzalez, R. (2022). Drugs for intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy: Current knowledge and way forward. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, 7(8). https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7080152 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7080152
GRID3 - Nigeria. (2024). Geo-referenced infrastructure and demographic data for development. National Space Research and Development Agency.
Haakenstad, A., Harle, A. C., Tsakalos, G., Micah, A. E., Tao, T., Anjomshoa, M., Cohen, J., Fullman, N., Hay, S. I., Mestrovic, T., Mohammed, S., Mousavi, S. M., Nixon, M. R., Pigott, D., Tran, K., Murray, C. J. L., & Dieleman, J. L. (2019). Tracking spending on malaria by source in 106 countries, 2000-16: An economic modelling study. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 19(7), 703-716. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30165-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30165-3
Haileselassie, W., Zemene, E., Lee, M. C., Zhong, D., Zhou, G., Taye, B., Dagne, A., Deressa, W., Kazura, J. W., Yan, G., & Yewhalaw, D. (2021). The effect of irrigation on malaria vector bionomics and transmission intensity in western Ethiopia. Parasites & Vectors, 14(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-021-04993-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-021-04993-y
Hawaria, D., & Kibret, S. (2023). Increased malaria incidence following irrigation practices in the Endorheic Rift Valley Basin of Sidama Region, Ethiopia. PLOS ONE, 18(4), e0284247. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284247 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284247
Ibrahim, B. S., Abubakar, A. A., Bajoga, U. A., & Nguku, P. M. (2017). Evaluation of the Kaduna State, Malaria Surveillance System January-December, 2014: Towards the goal of malaria elimination. Online Journal of Public Health Informatics, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.5210/ojphi.v9i1.7775 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5210/ojphi.v9i1.7775
Kabaria, C. W., Gilbert, M., Noor, A. M., Snow, R. W., & Linard, C. (2017). The impact of urbanization and population density on childhood Plasmodium falciparum parasite prevalence rates in Africa. Malaria Journal, 16(1), 49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-017-1694-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-017-1694-2
Kaduna Bureau of Statistics. (2015). Population projections for Kaduna State.
Kalthof, M. W. M. L., Gravey, M., Wijnands, F., & Karssenberg, D. (2023). Predicting continental scale malaria with land surface water predictors based on malaria dispersal mechanisms and high-resolution Earth observation data. GeoHealth, 7(10). https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GH000811 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GH000811
Kibret, S., Glenn Wilson, G., Ryder, D., Tekie, H., & Petros, B. (2019). Environmental and meteorological factors linked to malaria transmission around large dams at three ecological settings in Ethiopia. Malaria Journal, 18(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-019-2689-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-019-2689-y
Krol, L., Blom, R., Dellar, M., van der Beek, J. G., Stroo, A. C. J., van Bodegom, P. M., Geerling, G. W., Koenraadt, C. J. M., & Schrama, M. (2023). Interactive effects of climate, land use, and soil type on Culex pipiens/torrentium abundance. One Health, 17, 100589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2023.100589 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2023.100589
Leckebusch, G. C., & Abdussalam, A. F. (2015). Climate and socioeconomic influences on interannual variability of cholera in Nigeria. Health & Place, 34, 107-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2015.04.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2015.04.006
Lunde, T. M., Korecha, D., Loha, E., Sorteberg, A., & Lindtjørn, B. (2013). A dynamic model of some malaria-transmitting Anopheline mosquitoes of the Afrotropical region. I. Model description and sensitivity analysis. Malaria Journal, 12(1), 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-12-28 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-12-28
McMahon, A., Mihretie, A., Ahmed, A. A., Lake, M., Awoke, W., & Wimberly, M. C. (2021). Remote sensing of environmental risk factors for malaria in different geographic contexts. International Journal of Health Geographics, 20(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12942-021-00282-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12942-021-00282-0
Merga, B. B., Moisa, M. B., & Gemeda, D. O. (2024). Spatial analysis of malaria risk using geospatial techniques in Wabi Shebele River Sub-Basin, Southeastern Ethiopia. Sustainable Environment, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2024.2321681 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2024.2321681
Mihiretie, A. A. (2022). Assessment of malaria risk using GIS and multi-criteria: The case study of East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia. International Journal of Environment and Geoinformatics, 9(1), 74-78. https://doi.org/10.30897/ijegeo.781219 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30897/ijegeo.781219
Mordecai, E. A., Caldwell, J. M., Grossman, M. K., Lippi, C. A., Johnson, L. R., Neira, M., Rohr, J. R., Ryan, S. J., Savage, V., Shocket, M. S., Sippy, R., Stewart Ibarra, A. M., Thomas, M. B., & Villena, O. (2019). Thermal biology of mosquito-borne disease. Ecology Letters, 22(10), 1690-1708. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13335 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13335
Musa, K., & Abubakar, M. L. (2024). Monitoring urban growth and landscape fragmentation in Kaduna, Nigeria, using remote sensing approach. Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management, 12(1), 6757-6769. https://doi.org/10.15243/jdmlm.2024.121.6757 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15243/jdmlm.2024.121.6757
Musa, S., Olorukooba, A. A., Muhammad, N. S., Muhammad, B., & Makarfi, H. U. (2022). Awareness, perception, and acceptance of malaria vaccine among women of the reproductive age group in a rural community in Soba, Kaduna State, North-west Nigeria. Kanem Journal of Medical Sciences, 16(1), 32-38. https://doi.org/10.36020/kjms.2022.1601.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.36020/kjms.2022.1601.004
Mwangungulu, S. P., Dorothea, D., Ngereja, Z. R., & Kaindoa, E. W. (2023). Geospatial-based model for malaria risk prediction in Kilombero Valley, South-Eastern Tanzania. PLOS ONE, 18(10), e0293201. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293201 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293201
National Malaria Elimination Programme (NMEP), National Population Commission (NPC), & ICF. (2022). Nigeria Malaria Indicator Survey 2021 Final Report.
Ofgeha, G. Y. (2023). Spatial analysis of malaria hotspots in Dilla sub-watershed: Western Ethiopia. PLOS ONE, 18(4), e0273271. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273271 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273271
Olumese, P. (2010). Guidelines for the treatment of malaria (2nd ed.). World Health Organization.
Saaty, T. L. (1990). How to make a decision: The analytic hierarchy process. European Journal of Operational Research, 48(1), 9-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-2217(90)90057-I DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-2217(90)90057-I
Saito, M., Mansoor, R., Kennon, K., Anvikar, A. R., Ashley, E. A., Chandramohan, D., Cohee, L. M., D'Alessandro, U., Genton, B., Gilder, M. E., Juma, E., Kalilani-Phiri, L., Kuepfer, I., Laufer, M. K., Lwin, K. M., Meshnick, S. R., Mosha, D., Mwapasa, V., Mwebaza, N., ... Guérin, P. J. (2020). Efficacy and tolerability of artemisinin-based and quinine-based treatments for uncomplicated falciparum malaria in pregnancy: A systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 20(8), 943-952. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30064-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30064-5
Saleh, Y. (2015). Kaduna: Physical and human environment. Shanono Printers and Publishers.
Shah, H. A., Carrasco, L. R., Hamlet, A., & Murray, K. A. (2022). Exploring agricultural land-use and childhood malaria associations in sub-Saharan Africa. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 4124. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-07837-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-07837-6
Slutsker, L., & Leke, R. G. F. (2023). First-trimester use of ACTs for malaria treatment in pregnancy. The Lancet, 401(10371), 81-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02166-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02166-3
Suleiman, M., Lawrence, E., & Muhammed, H. B. (2021). The influence of some weather elements on the occurrence of malaria and typhoid in Tudun Wada, Kaduna South LGA, Kaduna State. International Journal of Environmental Design and Construction Management, 20(4), 22-38.
Taffese, H. S., & Zuma, S. M. (2024). Determinants of persistent malaria transmission in the Arjo-Didessa farm area in Ethiopia. Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases, 39(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/sajid.v39i1.623 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/sajid.v39i1.623
United Nations. (2021). Roll back malaria with emphasis on the promotion of insecticide-treated bed nets and household management of malaria by mothers. UN Trust Fund for Human Security.
United Nations. (2023). SDG Target 3.3 Communicable diseases. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
World Health Organization. (2018). World malaria report 2018.
World Health Organization. (2019). Artemisinin resistance and artemisinin-based combination therapy efficacy. WHO Global Malaria Programme.
World Health Organization. (2023a). Microscopy. WHO Global Malaria Programme.
World Health Organization. (2023b). World malaria report 2023.
Xia, J., Cai, S., Zhang, H., Lin, W., Fan, Y., Qiu, J., Sun, L., Chang, B., Zhang, Z., & Nie, S. (2015). Spatial, temporal, and spatiotemporal analysis of malaria in Hubei Province, China from 2004-2011. Malaria Journal, 14(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-015-0650-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-015-0650-2
Yamba, E. I., Fink, A. H., Badu, K., Asare, E. O., Tompkins, A. M., & Amekudzi, L. K. (2023). Climate drivers of malaria transmission seasonality and their relative importance in sub-Saharan Africa. GeoHealth, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GH000698 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GH000698
Youssefi, F., Zoej, M. J. V., Hanafi-Bojd, A. A., Dariane, A. B., Khaki, M., Safdarinezhad, A., & Ghaderpour, E. (2022). Temporal monitoring and predicting of the abundance of malaria vectors using time series analysis of remote sensing data through Google Earth Engine. Sensors, 22(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/s22051942 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/s22051942
Zhou, G., Hemming-Schroeder, E., Jeang, B., Wang, X., Zhong, D., Lee, M. C., Li, Y., Bradley, L., Gobran, S. R., David, R. E., Ondeto, B. M., Orondo, P., Atieli, H., Githure, J. I., Githeko, A. K., Kazura, J., & Yan, G. (2022). Irrigation-induced environmental changes sustain malaria transmission and compromise intervention effectiveness. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 226(9), 1657-1666. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiac361 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiac361
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
UMYU Scientifica recognizes the importance of protecting authors’ intellectual property while promoting the free exchange of scientific knowledge. The journal adopts a copyright-retention model that empowers authors to maintain ownership of their work while granting the journal rights necessary for publication and dissemination.
1. Copyright Ownership
Authors publishing with UMYU Scientifica retain full copyright and publishing rights to their work. By submitting a manuscript, authors agree to grant the journal a non-exclusive license to publish, reproduce, distribute, and archive the article in all forms and media for the purpose of scholarly communication.
2. Licensing Terms
All articles are published under the Creative Commons Attribution–NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) license.
This license permits others to:
- Share - copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format.
- Adapt - remix, transform, and build upon the material.
- For non-commercial purposes only, provided that proper credit is given to the original author(s) and UMYU Scientifica as the source, a link to the license is provided, and any modifications are clearly indicated.
Commercial reuse or distribution of the content requires written permission from both the author and the editorial office.
3. Author Rights
Authors are free to:
- Deposit all versions of their manuscript (preprint, accepted version, and published version) in institutional, disciplinary, or public repositories without embargo.
- Use and distribute their published article for non-commercial scholarly purposes, including teaching, conference presentations, and research sharing.
- Include their work in future books, theses, or compilations, provided proper citation to the journal is made.
4. Publisher’s Rights
Upon publication, UMYU Scientifica retains the right to:
- Host, index, and disseminate the article through the journal’s website and partner databases.
- Archive the content in long-term preservation systems such as the PKP Preservation Network (PKP-PN) and the Umaru Musa Yar’adua University Institutional Repository.
5. Attribution and Citation
Users must give appropriate credit to the author(s), include a link to the article’s DOI or the journal webpage, and indicate if changes were made. Proper citation is required whenever the work is reused or referenced.
6. License Reference
For detailed terms of use, please refer to the Creative Commons Attribution–NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0):
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
