Phytochemical Profiling, Multi-Mechanistic Antioxidant and Cholinesterase Inhibitory Activities of Dalbergia lactea Leaf Extract: Implications for Neuroprotection
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.56919/usci.2651.024Keywords:
Dalbergia lactea, traditional medicine, neuroprotection, phytochemicals, antioxidant, acetylcholinesteraseAbstract
Neurodegenerative disorders, especially Alzheimer's disease, pose a growing globalhealth crisis, which has very few therapeutic interventions. Medicinal plants are potential sources of alternatives, as they contain a wide variety of bioactive compounds with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects. Dalbergia lactea, traditionally used in Nigerian folk medicine to improve memory and treat neurological disorders, is a source of unexplored scientific knowledge. The objective of the paper was to test the phytochemical profile and antioxidant property of D. lactea leaf extract as a preliminary step in determining its neuroprotective activity. A collection, authentication, and cold ethanolic extraction of fresh leaves of D. lactea was done. Qualitative screening, phytochemical analysis, and quantitative TPC and TFC analyses of total phenol and total flavonoid content, as well as detailed in vitro antioxidant assays, were conducted in triplicate (n=3). The antioxidant activities assessed were ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging, 2, 2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical cation scavenging, lipid peroxidation inhibition, nitric oxide scavenging, metal chelation (iron and copper), and cholinesterase inhibition. Qualitative screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, glycosides, and phenols. Quantitative results indicated TPC of 7.35 ± 0.15 mg gallic acid equivalents/g extract and TFC of 2.02 ± 0.10 mg quercetin equivalents/g extract. The extract exhibited concentration-dependent antioxidant activity across all assays. FRAP activity was 88.09 ± 0.02 % at 100 μg/mL, DPPH scavenging was 77.38 ± 0.87 %, ABTS scavenging was 81.40 ± 0.20, lipid peroxidation inhibition was 70.29 ± 0.24 %, and nitric oxide scavenging was 68.01 ± 0.45 %. The extract also showed strong metal chelation capacity, with iron chelation (70.52 ± 0.37%) and copper chelation (76.97 ± 0.31%) at 100 μg/mL. It is worth noting that the extract exhibited cholinesterase inhibitory properties, with acetylcholinesterase inhibition of 67.04 ± 0.26% and butyrylcholinesterase inhibition of 61.15 ± 0.40% at 100 μg/ml. On a mass basis, the extract demonstrated IC₅₀ values of 24.16 μg/mL (DPPH) and 17.29 μg/mL (ABTS), indicating moderate potency compared to the pure reference standards. For Cholinesterase inhibition, IC50 values were 15.07 μg/ml (AChE) and 18.11 μg/ml (BChE). The results indicate that D. lactea has significant antioxidant capacity and cholinesterase-inhibitory effects and can be used as a traditional medicine with neurological uses. The strong antioxidant effects displayed imply possible neuroprotective actions across a variety of pathways, including oxidative stress reduction, metal chelation, and cholinergic modulation.
References
Alzheimer's Association. (2023). 2023 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 19(4), 1598–1695. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.13016
Bajda, M., Guzior, N., Ignasik, M., & Malawska, B. (2011). Multi-target-directed ligands in Alzheimer's disease treatment. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 18(32), 4949–4975. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/092986711797535245
Benzie, I. F. F., & Strain, J. J. (1996). The ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) as a measure of "antioxidant power": The FRAP assay. Analytical Biochemistry, 239(1), 70-76. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/abio.1996.0292
Birks, J. (2006). Cholinesterase inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1, Article CD005593. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005593
Brand-Williams, W., Cuvelier, M. E., & Berset, C. (1995). Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 28(1), 25–30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0023-6438(95)80008-5
Bush, A. I. (2013). The metal theory of Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 33(Suppl 1), S277–S281. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2012-129011
Butterfield, D. A., & Halliwell, B. (2019). Oxidative stress, dysfunctional glucose metabolism and Alzheimer disease. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 20(3), 148–160. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-019-0132-6
Carter, P. (1971). Spectrophotometric determination of serum iron at the submicrogram level with a new reagent (ferrozine). Analytical Biochemistry, 40(2), 450–458. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-2697(71)90405-2
Chang, C. C., Yang, M. H., Wen, H. M., & Chern, J. C. (2002). Estimation of total flavonoid content in propolis by two complementary colorimetric methods. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, 10(3), 178–182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.38212/2224-6614.2748
Colton, C. A. (2009). Heterogeneity of microglial activation in the innate immune response in the brain. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, 4(4), 399–418. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11481-009-9164-4
Dusek, P., Roos, P. M., Litwin, T., Schneider, S. A., Flaten, T. P., & Aaseth, J. (2015). The neurotoxicity of iron, copper and manganese in Parkinson's and Wilson's diseases. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 31, 193–203. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2014.05.007
Ellman, G. L., Courtney, K. D., Andres, V., & Featherstone, R. M. (1961). A new and rapid colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity. Biochemical Pharmacology, 7, 88–95. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-2952(61)90145-9
Elufioye, T. O., Babawale, C. T., & Shonibare, O. O. (2012). Ethnobotanical survey of plants used as memory enhancer in three states of Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Herbal Medicine, 2(3), 119–125.
Giacobini, E. (2004). Cholinesterase inhibitors: new roles and therapeutic alternatives. Pharmacological Research, 50(4), 433–440. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2003.11.017
Green, L. C., Wagner, D. A., Glogowski, J., Skipper, P. L., Wishnok, J. S., & Tannenbaum, S. R. (1982). Analysis of nitrate, nitrite, and [15N]nitrate in biological fluids. Analytical Biochemistry, 126(1), 131–138. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-2697(82)90118-X
Greig, N. H., Lahiri, D. K., & Sambamurti, K. (2012). Butyrylcholinesterase: An emerging therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease and related dementias. Current Alzheimer Research, 9(2), 197–208.
Gureje, O., Ogunniyi, A., & Baiyewu, O. (2022). Dementia care in sub-Saharan Africa: A review of existing literature and policy implications. Global Health Action, 15(1), Article 2063942.
Halliwell, B., Gutteridge, J. M. C., & Aruoma, O. I. (1987). The deoxyribose method: a simple 'test-tube' assay for determination of rate constants for reactions of hydroxyl radicals. Analytical Biochemistry, 165(1), 215–219. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-2697(87)90222-3
Hampel, H., Hardy, J., Blennow, K., Chen, C., Perry, G., Kim, S. H., Villemagne, V. L., Aisen, P., Vendruscolo, M., & Vergallo, A. (2021). The amyloid-β pathway in Alzheimer's disease. Molecular Psychiatry, 26(10), 5481–5503. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01249-0
Han, J. Y., Park, S. H., Yang, S. H., & Kim, M. G. (2020). Flavonoids modulate neuroinflammation via regulation of nuclear factor kappa B signaling. Molecules, 25(24), Article 5939.
Harborne, J. B. (1998). Phytochemical methods: A guide to modern techniques of plant analysis (3rd ed.). Chapman and Hall.
Heinrich, M., & Teoh, H. L. (2004). Galanthamine from snowdrop—the development of a modern drug against Alzheimer's disease from local Caucasian knowledge. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 92(2-3), 147-162. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.02.012
Hochgrebe, T., Humphrey, S. J., Peck, G. R., Kwa, F. A., Brindle, N. P., Engholm-Keller, K., & Lundby, A. (2021). The role of antioxidants in neuroprotection and their implication in neurological diseases. Antioxidants, 10(7), Article 1012.
Kumar, S., & Pandey, A. K. (2013). Chemistry and biological activities of flavonoids: an overview. The Scientific World Journal, 2013, Article 162750. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/162750
Li, Y., Kong, D., Ahmad, A., Bao, B., & Sarkar, F. H. (2020). Antioxidant function of isoflavone and 3,3'-diindolylmethane: are they important for cancer prevention and therapy? Antioxidants & Redox Signaling, 19(2), 139–150. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2013.5233
López-Otín, C., Blasco, M. A., Partridge, L., Serrano, M., & Kroemer, G. (2013). The hallmarks of aging. Cell, 153(6), 1194–1217. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2013.05.039
Maelicke, A., & Albuquerque, E. X. (2000). Allosteric modulation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors as a treatment strategy for Alzheimer's disease. European Journal of Pharmacology, 393(1-3), 165-170. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2999(00)00093-5
Misganu, Y. (2022). Traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of four Dalbergia species: A review. International Research Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry, 23(6), 42–53.
Nahar, L., Sarker, S. D., & Delazar, A. (2021). Phytochemicals and their potential roles in neuroprotection. Phytotherapy Research, 35(8), 4195–4214.
Onyeka, T. C., Ugochukwu, C., & Nwankwo, B. (2023). Current trends in dementia management in Nigeria: Bridging treatment gaps. Nigerian Journal of Clinical Practice, 26(3), 287–293.
Orhan, I. E., Senol, F. S., Demirci, B., & Baser, K. H. (2017). Profiling of in vitro neurobiological effects and phenolic acids of selected endemic Salvia species. Pure and Applied Chemistry, 89(4), 541–555.
Ouahhoud, S., Mamri, S., Morjane, I., Laaroussi, H., Elbouzidi, A., Aanniz, T., El Moussaoui, A., & Bouyahya, A. (2022). Evaluation of the antioxidant and antibacterial properties of extracts from Moroccan medicinal plants. Scientific African, 15, Article e01099.
Oyaizu, M. (1986). Studies on products of browning reaction: Antioxidative activity of products of browning reaction prepared from glucosamine. Japanese Journal of Nutrition, 44, 307–315. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5264/eiyogakuzashi.44.307
Panche, A. N., Diwan, A. D., & Chandra, S. R. (2016). Flavonoids: an overview. Journal of Nutritional Science, 5, Article e47. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/jns.2016.41
Qin, S., Fang, J., He, X., Yu, G., Yi, F., & Zhu, G. (2024). The therapeutic potential of Dalbergia pinnata essential oil in Alzheimer's disease: EEG signal analysis in vivo, SH-SY5Y model in vitro, and network pharmacology. Biology, 13(7), Article 544. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13070544
Raheja, S., Girdhar, A., Kamboj, A., Lather, V., & Pandita, D. (2021). Protective effect of Dalbergia sissoo extract against amyloid-β(1-42)-induced memory impairment, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation in rats. Turkish Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18(1), 104–110. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4274/tjps.galenos.2020.04379
Re, R., Pellegrini, N., Proteggente, A., Pannala, A., Yang, M., & Rice-Evans, C. (1999). Antioxidant activity applying an improved ABTS radical cation decolorization assay. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 26(9-10), 1231–1237. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0891-5849(98)00315-3
Sarikürkçü, C., Zengin, G., & Uysal, S. (2020). Screening of phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of selected Medicago L. species collected from Turkey. Molecules, 25(2), Article 305.
Sharma, B., Singh, S., & Siddiqi, N. J. (2021). Bioactive compounds of Dalbergia sissoo: Comprehensive review on ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and pharmacological activities. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 267, Article 113515.
Singleton, V. L., Orthofer, R., & Lamuela-Raventós, R. M. (1999). Analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Methods in Enzymology, 299, 152–178. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0076-6879(99)99017-1
Sultana, R., Perluigi, M., & Butterfield, D. A. (2021). Oxidative stress and inflammation in Alzheimer's disease: A review. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 82(3), 1137–1150.
Tenchov, R., Sasso, J. M., & Zhou, Q. A. (2024). Alzheimer's disease: exploring the landscape of cognitive decline. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 15(21), 3800–3827. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.4c00339
Trease, G. E., & Evans, W. C. (2002). Pharmacognosy (15th ed.). Saunders Publishers.
Tripathi, A., Misra, R., & Singh, R. (2020). Pharmacological potential of alkaloids from medicinal plants: A review. Journal of Pharmacy Research, 14(3), 227–233.
Ward, R. J., Zucca, F. A., Duyn, J. H., Crichton, R. R., & Zecca, L. (2014). The role of iron in brain ageing and neurodegenerative disorders. Lancet Neurology, 13(10), 1045–1060. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70117-6
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Oyesolape Basirat Akinsipo (Oyelaja), Abosede Adejoke Badeji, Khadijah Adebukola Adeyemi, Khairat Taiwo Salami, Temilade Ireti Salami (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
UMYU Scientifica recognizes the importance of protecting authors’ intellectual property while promoting the free exchange of scientific knowledge. The journal adopts a copyright-retention model that empowers authors to maintain ownership of their work while granting the journal rights necessary for publication and dissemination.
1. Copyright Ownership
Authors publishing with UMYU Scientifica retain full copyright and publishing rights to their work. By submitting a manuscript, authors agree to grant the journal a non-exclusive license to publish, reproduce, distribute, and archive the article in all forms and media for the purpose of scholarly communication.
2. Licensing Terms
All articles are published under the Creative Commons Attribution–NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) license.
This license permits others to:
- Share - copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format.
- Adapt - remix, transform, and build upon the material.
- For non-commercial purposes only, provided that proper credit is given to the original author(s) and UMYU Scientifica as the source, a link to the license is provided, and any modifications are clearly indicated.
Commercial reuse or distribution of the content requires written permission from both the author and the editorial office.
3. Author Rights
Authors are free to:
- Deposit all versions of their manuscript (preprint, accepted version, and published version) in institutional, disciplinary, or public repositories without embargo.
- Use and distribute their published article for non-commercial scholarly purposes, including teaching, conference presentations, and research sharing.
- Include their work in future books, theses, or compilations, provided proper citation to the journal is made.
4. Publisher’s Rights
Upon publication, UMYU Scientifica retains the right to:
- Host, index, and disseminate the article through the journal’s website and partner databases.
- Archive the content in long-term preservation systems such as the PKP Preservation Network (PKP-PN) and the Umaru Musa Yar’adua University Institutional Repository.
5. Attribution and Citation
Users must give appropriate credit to the author(s), include a link to the article’s DOI or the journal webpage, and indicate if changes were made. Proper citation is required whenever the work is reused or referenced.
6. License Reference
For detailed terms of use, please refer to the Creative Commons Attribution–NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0):
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
